Child labour persists in Zambia’s manganese and copper mining as global demand for critical minerals grows

Children are still working in dangerous artisanal copper and manganese mines in Zambia, despite legal protections. New research by Terre des Hommes Netherlands shows that poverty, weak enforcement and rising global demand for critical minerals continue to fuel child labour in the country’s mining sector.

Copper and manganese are essential for technologies such as electric vehicles, batteries and renewable energy infrastructure. As international demand continues to rise, Zambia is rapidly expanding its mining sector. While this presents economic opportunities, it also increases pressure on informal artisanal and small-scale mining (ASM), where children remain especially vulnerable.

Child labour concentrated in informal mining

The study found consistent evidence from government officials, civil society organisations and community representatives that child labour is present in Zambia’s manganese and copper mining sectors, primarily in informal ASM operations. Although comprehensive national data on mining-specific child labour remain limited, stakeholders consistently identified it as an ongoing concern.

According to Zambia’s 2023 Child Labour Survey, around 1,462 children are involved in mining and quarrying nationwide. While this represents only a small share of all child labour compared with agriculture, mining exposes children to some of the most hazardous forms of work.

Dangerous work for boys as young as 10

The research shows that boys are disproportionately affected. Children working in artisanal mines perform physically demanding and dangerous tasks throughout the mining process.

Younger boys, sometimes as young as 10, crawl into narrow underground shafts to retrieve ore, carry heavy loads to the surface and assist with sorting and transporting minerals. Older adolescents often supervise younger children, transport minerals and act as lookouts for mine security or police.

Researchers also found that child labour follows seasonal patterns. During the dry season, when agricultural work declines, many families turn to artisanal mining as an additional source of income, bringing children into mining activities alongside adults.

Poverty remains the main driver

The study identifies poverty as the primary factor pushing children into mining. Other key drivers include limited alternative livelihoods, family economic pressures and seasonal fluctuations in household income.

Rather than organised child recruitment, researchers found that child labour often takes place within family-based mining activities, where children contribute to household survival. Cases involving child-headed households and informal scavenging at mine sites were also documented.

Weak traceability creates risks for global supply chains

One of the report’s key findings concerns the lack of transparency in mineral supply chains.

Minerals extracted through informal mining are typically sold to local traders and intermediaries before entering national and international markets. Once minerals leave mining communities, information about how they were produced is often lost, making it difficult to distinguish responsibly sourced minerals from those linked to child labour.

The report notes that Zambian manganese and copper are exported to markets in Europe and Asia, meaning companies purchasing these minerals may unknowingly source materials connected to child labour unless stronger due diligence and traceability systems are implemented.

Stronger laws alone are not enough

Zambia has established legal protections against child labour, including laws prohibiting hazardous work for anyone under 18. Recent reforms, such as the creation of the Minerals Regulation Commission, aim to improve oversight of the mining sector.

However, the research found that enforcement remains limited due to insufficient inspection capacity, weak coordination between government agencies, low public awareness of child labour laws and continued economic pressures on families. Stakeholders warned that expanding artisanal mining without simultaneously strengthening child protection systems could unintentionally increase children’s exposure to hazardous work.

Recommendations

The study calls for coordinated action to better protect children in Zambia’s mining communities. Key recommendations include:

• conducting representative research to better measure child labour in manganese and copper mining;
• strengthening labour inspections and enforcement at local level;
• improving traceability throughout mineral supply chains;
• addressing the underlying drivers of child labour through social protection and alternative livelihood programmes; and
• strengthening collaboration between government, civil society, industry and international partners.

As demand for critical minerals continues to grow, ensuring that the green transition does not come at the expense of children’s rights must remain a priority.

Read the full report: Child Labour in Manganese & Copper Mining in Zambia.